A Musical Journey – From North India to Afghanistan
On April 30, 2022, Paul Grant, Sébastien Lacroix, and Santosh Kurbet took us on a journey through the history of sacred music from North India. With the sounds of the santoor, sitar, esraj, and tablas, these talented musicians performed Hindustani, Kashmiri, and Afghan compositions. Relive these moments on our YouTube channel.
Here, we offer an overview of the origins and principles governing these sacred and traditional music forms, providing a deeper understanding of this musical journey.
The Origins of Indian Sacred Music
The classical music of North India, like the very essence of music itself, traces its roots back to ancient prehistoric cultures where animistic beliefs led people to blend melody and rhythm in pursuit of a mystical, hypnotic state through dance and sound [1].
The first formalization of music in India—one of the earliest in history—appears with the Vedas, particularly the Sama Veda, which can be regarded as one of the first collections of chanted hymns [2]. Between the 20th and 10th centuries BCE [3], the Chandogya Upanishad centralized meditative chants, providing a standardized foundation for the saman, or priests, who recited the Sama Veda. Their recitations were often accompanied by various instruments such as the flute (bansuri), the conch shell (shankh), percussion, and the vīnā [4].
The Natya-Sastra and the Dattilam
Hindu music is the only ancient musical system that has survived to this day [5]. The two oldest surviving texts on Indian sacred music (sangita) are the Natya-Sastra by Bharata Muni and the Dattilam by Dattila Muni (4th–2nd century BCE). These texts provide valuable insight into the music dedicated to the emerging deities Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, Ganesha, and Saraswati.
While Dattila Muni laid the foundational principles for musical reproduction by naming the notes (swaras) and rhythmic cycles (tala) [6], Bharata Muni described the aesthetic foundations of music, particularly the eight emotional experiences (rasas): eroticism (sringara), humor (hasya), compassion (karuna), terror (raudra), heroism (vira), fear (bhayanaka), disgust (bibhatsa), and wonder (adbhuta) [7].
Dhrupad
Dhrupad is a Hindi word derived from the Sanskrit terms Dhruva and Pada. Dhruva means constant or unchanging, while Pada refers to poetic verses. This etymology suggests a historical and unsurprising link between Dhrupad and devotion [11].
The Dhrupad musical tradition can be both sung and played on various instruments. It explores ragas through a precise structure. Before the main composition begins, a Dhrupad performance starts with a relatively long introduction called Alap, which consists of three parts [12]:
- Alap: A slow presentation of the raga without rhythmic accompaniment.
- Jod: A development of the Alap with a steady rhythmic pulse.
- Jhala: A conclusion to the introduction, marked by an intense rhythmic acceleration.
Following this introduction, the actual composition unfolds, typically divided into several sections based on the octaves used [13]:
- Sthai: The main melodic theme, usually played in the middle octave with some notes from the lower octave.
- Antara: The intermediate section, played in the middle and upper octaves.
- Sanchari: A free section where the performer explores the raga with creative liberty.
- Abhog: The concluding section, often including the artist’s signature.
Traditionally, a Dhrupad composition is rhythmically accompanied by the pakhawaj, a two-sided drum. The rhythmic cycle, known as taala, varies depending on the composition. Some commonly used taalas include Choutaal (12 beats), Jhaptaal (10 beats), Tevra (7 beats), Rudrataal (14 beats), Soolataal (10 beats), and Teentaal (16 beats) [14].
To grasp the essence of Dhrupad music, one must understand the importance of the master-disciple tradition (Guru-Shishya Parampara) in transmitting this art form. This lineage-based teaching system allows for tracing Dhrupad back to the Middle Ages while distinguishing stylistic differences between various musical schools.
Raga
Between the 6th and 8th centuries, Matanga Muni transformed the concept of musical mode (jati) into a state of being (raga) in his famous Sanskrit text, the Brihaddesi [8]. In this work, he describes the many elements that define a raga—let’s explore some of them [9].
Svarita
The Svarita is the mother note of the raga—the origin of all melody, the point to which the music always returns, and the foundation that guides the melodic narrative. Known as Sa, this tonic note remains present as a continuous drone throughout the raga. Today, while its pitch may vary, it is often set around the Western C or C#.
Raga Svara
In Indian music, the equivalent of the Western notes C, D, E, F, G, A, and B are named Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, and Ni, assuming that Svarita (Sa) corresponds to the Western C. The octave is divided into 22 sruti, microtonal intervals that allow subtle variations in the svaras, giving each note its unique character. Just like in Western music, svaras can also be altered with flats or sharps [10].
Beyond these basic notes, each raga assigns specific roles to them, dictating how they should be played. Since Indian classical music is based on improvisation, it is crucial to define which notes should be dominant, co-dominant, avoided, rare, sustained, played quickly, etc. These roles are categorized as vadi (main note), samvadi (secondary note), anuvadi(neutral note), vivadi (dissonant note), varjita (omitted note), bahutva (frequent note), aplatva (infrequent note), graha(starting note), nyasa (ending note), and visranti (resting note).
Scales
Scales form the structural foundation of a raga. Each raga consists of two sets of notes: an ascending scale (aroha) and a descending scale (avaroha), which usually differ slightly. This contrast between the ascending and descending patterns is key to defining the distinctive mood and color of the raga.
From North India to Afghanistan
Determining the precise origins of the connections between Indian, Kashmiri, Punjabi, Afghan, and Persian music is challenging. While it is plausible that such links existed as early as the Achaemenid Empire (3rd century BCE), historical evidence remains scarce. However, it is well established that the Mughal Empire played a significant role in these musical exchanges. Founded by Babur [15] in the 15th century in Kabul, the empire eventually expanded from the Ganges Delta to Afghanistan, largely due to the extraordinary leadership of Emperor Akbar [16],[17].
Passed down from master to disciple, Dhrupad music was once reserved for the highest social classes, serving both to entertain and elevate the consciousness of royal courts. In the 15th century, Maharaja Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior employed a remarkable musician named Tansen, to whom numerous musical treatises and ragas are attributed. He was even considered one of the “Nine Jewels” of the royal court [18].
After Raja Man Singh’s downfall, court musicians sought new patrons to continue their art. Highly revered, Tansen was personally invited by Emperor Akbar to perform at his royal court in Delhi. This period is widely regarded as the golden age of Dhrupad music [19].
[1] DANIELOU, Alain, Origines et Pouvoirs de la musique, Paris, Kailash Editions, les cahiers du mleccha, 2005, pp. 18-20.
[2] DANIELOU, Alain, Histoire de l’Inde, Paris, Fayard, 1983, pp. 71-75.
[3] BECK, Guy, Sacred Music and Hindu Religious Experience: From Ancient Roots to the Modern Classical Tradition, Asian Studies and Philosophy, New Orleans, Tulane University, 2018, pp. 2-3.
[4] Ibid. p.4
[5] DANIELOU, Alain, Origines et Pouvoirs de la musique, Paris, Kailash Editions, les cahiers du mleccha, 2005, p. 126.
[6] BECK, Guy, Sonic Liturgy: Rituals and Music in Hindu Traditions, Columbia, University of South Carolina Press, 2012, chap. 2.
[7] BHARATA MUNI, Natya-Sastra, traduction par RANGACHARYA, Adya, New Dehli, Munshiram Manoharlal 2003.
[8] BECK, Guy, Sacred Music and Hindu Religious Experience: From Ancient Roots to the Modern Classical Tradition, Asian Studies and Philosophy, New Orleans, Tulane University, 2018, p. 5.
[9] MOUTAL, Patrick, hindustani raga sangita : Mécanismes de base de la Musique Classique du Nord de l’Inde, Aubagne, Patrick Moutal Editeur, 2012, pp. 43-59.
[10] En musique indienne, uniquement la quarte Ma peut être diésée. Les svaras Re, Ga, Dha, et Ni peuvent quand à elles être bémolisées.
[11] CHATTERJEE MUKHERJEE, Samarpita, An Introduction to Dhrupad Performance Platforms of India, in Etnomüzikoloji Dergisi, Ethnomusicology Journal, West Bengal, 2020, p.265
[12] Ibid, p.264.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Ibid. p. 265
[15] Zahir el-Din Mohammed (1483 – 1530)
[16] Djalal ed-Din Mohammed Akbar (1542 – 1605)
[17] DUBANT, Bernard, Les Grands Empires : L’Inde des Grands Moghols, Editions Robert Laffont, Milan, 1983, p. 92.
[18] Girīśa Caturvedī, Sarala Jag Mohan, Tansen, page 20
[19] CHATTERJEE MUKHERJEE, Samarpita, An Introduction to Dhrupad Performance Platforms of India, in Etnomüzikoloji Dergisi, Ethnomusicology Journal, West Bengal, 2020, p.266
